Despite this present-day appellation, those living within the borders of the Byzantine Empire did not call themselves Byzantine. They continued to call themselves Romans and, until the early seventh century, continued to speak Latin. Even Roman Catholicism remained the official religion of the Byzantine Empire until the eleventh century.
In an effort to recreate a unified Roman Empire, Justinian I r. This swath of territory remained in the Byzantine Empire for two centuries. A significant cultural shift occurred in the early seventh century when Heraclius r. This caused religious tensions with the church in Rome that began in the fourth century, and resulted in seven Ecumenical Councils over six hundred years. From the tenth century to the fifteenth, the empire experienced periods of peace and prosperity, as well as war and economic downturns.
In the late eleventh century, the empire lost much of Asia Minor to the Turks, a temporary setback that foreshadowed the eventual weakening of Constantinople and the further loss of territory to the growing Ottoman Empire.
In , the Ottoman Turks invaded and captured Constantinople, bringing the Byzantine Empire to an end. Surviving Byzantine art is mostly religious and, for the most part, highly conventionalized, following traditional models that translate their carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms. Painting in frescos , mosaics , and illuminated manuscripts , and on wood panels were the main, two-dimensional media. Manuscript painting preserved some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works.
Figurative sculpture was very rare except for small, carved ivories. Byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought-after in Western Europe, where it maintained a continuous influence on medieval art until near the end of the period. This was especially true in Italy, where Byzantine styles persisted in modified form through the twelfth century.
However, few incoming influences affected Byzantine style. By means of the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox church, Byzantine forms and styles spread throughout the Orthodox world and beyond.
Ascension scene from the Rabula Gospel : Miniatures of the sixth-century Rabula Gospel display the more abstract and symbolic nature of Byzantine art. Early Byzantine architecture drew upon the earlier elements of Roman architecture. After the fall of the Western Empire, several churches, including the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and San Vitale in Ravenna, were built as centrally planned structures.
However, stylistic drift, technological advancement, and political and territorial changes gradually resulted in the Greek-cross plan in church architecture. Buildings increased in geometric complexity. Brick and plaster were used in addition to stone for the decoration of important public structures. Classical orders were used more freely.
Mosaics replaced carved decoration. Complex domes rested upon massive piers , and windows filtered light through thin sheets of alabaster to softly illuminate interiors. Influences from Byzantine architecture, particularly in religious buildings, can be found in diverse regions from Egypt and Arabia to Russia and Romania. Most of the surviving structures are sacred in nature; secular buildings are mostly known through contemporaneous descriptions.
Plan of the katholikon church of the Pelekete monastery : The plan of katholikon church provides the typical layout of Byzantine churches after the eighth century.
The Byzantine Emperor Justinian I launched an ambitious building program to develop holy sites to restore the glory of the Roman Empire.
This attempt at restoration included an ambitious building program in Constantinople and elsewhere in the empire, and is the most substantial architectural achievement by one person in history.
Justinian I from San Vitale in Ravenna : Byzantine Emperor Justinian forcefully pushed for the spread of Christianity along with the expansion of his empire. One notable structure for which Justinian was responsible is the Hagia Sophia, or Church of Holy Wisdom, built by Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, both of whom would oversee most building projects that Justinian ordered within Constantinople.
Like most Byzantine churches of this time, the Hagia Sophia is centrally planned , with the dome serving as its focal point. Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles plan for the Hagia Sophia : a Plan of the gallery upper half ; b Plan of the ground floor lower half. The vast interior has a complex structure. The nave is covered by a central dome that at its maximum is over feet from floor level and rests on an arcade of 40 arched windows. Although the dome appears circular at first glance, repairs to its structure have left it somewhat elliptical, with its diameter varying between and nearly feet.
The dome of Hagia Sophia has spurred particular interest for many art historians, architects, and engineers because of the innovative way the original architects envisioned it.
The cupola is carried on four, spherical, triangular pendentives , an element that was first fully realized in this building. The pendentives implement the transition from the circular base of the dome to the rectangular base below to restrain the lateral forces of the dome and allow its weight to flow downwards.
They were later reinforced with buttresses. At the western entrance side and the eastern liturgical side are arched openings that are extended by half domes of identical diameter to the central dome, and carried on smaller semi-domed exedras. A hierarchy of dome-headed elements creates a vast, oblong interior crowned by the central dome, with a span of feet. The Imperial Gate, reserved only for the emperor, was the main entrance of the cathedral.
A long ramp from the northern part of the outer narthex leads up to the upper gallery, which was traditionally reserved for the empress and her entourage. It is laid out in a horseshoe shape that encloses the nave until it reaches the apse. The Church of the Holy Apostles, originally built under the purview of Constantine in , was no longer considered grand enough when Justinian ascended the throne.
Because of this, the architects Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles designed and built a new church on the same site in the late s consecrated in The western arm of the cross extended farther than the others to form an atrium. Because blueprints did not exist yet, and because the church was demolished shortly after the Ottoman conquest, the design details of the building are a matter of dispute. It was recognized at the time as an adornment to all of Constantinople.
However, the Saints Sergius and Bacchus were said to intervene and vouched to Justin that his nephew was innocent. After the restoration of his title, Justinian commissioned Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles to construct the church as a gesture of thanksgiving. When the church was built, it shared its narthex, atrium and propylaea with another church. It became one of the most important religious structures in Constantinople. Little Hagia Sophia : A general view of the interior, looking south and west.
The Early Byzantine period witnessed the establishment of strict guidelines for the production of icons. Icon painting, as distinct from other forms of painting, emerged in the Early Byzantine period as an aid to religious devotion.
In contrast , earlier Christian art had relied more on allegory and symbolism. For example, earlier art might have featured a lamb or a fish rather than Christ in human form. Before long, religious figures were being depicted in their human form to emphasize their humanity as well as their spirituality. While this issue would be debated and challenged during the later Iconoclastic period, for a time, images of the saints in icon paintings flourished.
After the adoption of Christianity as the only permissible Roman state religion under Theodosius I, Christian art began to change not only in quality and sophistication but also in nature. Paintings of martyrs and their feats began to appear, and early writers commented on their lifelike effect. Statues in the round were avoided as being too close to the principal artistic focus of pagan cult practices, as they have continued to be with some small-scale exceptions throughout the history of Eastern Christianity.
Icons were more religious than aesthetic in nature. They were understood to manifest the unique presence of the figure depicted by means of a likeness to that figure maintained through carefully maintained canons of representation.
Therefore, very little room is made for artistic license. Almost every aspect of the subject matter has a symbolic aspect. Christ, the saints, and the angels all have halos. Angels, as well as some depictions of the Holy Trinity, have wings because they are messengers. Figures have consistent facial appearances, hold attributes personal to them, and use a few conventional poses.
Color plays an important role, as well. Gold represents the radiance of Heaven. Red signifies divine life, while blue is the color of human life. White is the Uncreated Light of God, only used for scenes depicting the resurrection and transfiguration of Christ. In icons of Jesus and Mary, Jesus wears a red undergarment with a blue outer garment God as Human , and Mary wears a blue undergarment with a red outer garment humanity granted divine gifts.
Thus, the doctrine of deification is conveyed by icons. Most icons incorporate some calligraphic text naming the person or event depicted.
Because letters also carry symbolic significance, writing is often presented in a stylized manner. The majesty of the images bespeaks of the Glory of God and the spiritual realities of the Christian faith. The images were intended to educated and provide contemplation of the invisible realm of the spirit.
Byzantine aesthetics, therefore, is thoroughly in the service of theology. In today's world artistic works provide an enigma to the viewer, for the emphasis on the total freedom of expression of the artist has led to a confusion as to the meaning and function of art. Many works of art today adhere to an almost 'anything goes' type of attitude to the extent of even dismissing the expression of ideas, thoughts or feelings from their repertoire. Yet a study of past artistic expressions reveals that freedom of creativity was not always stressed, especially during periods when art was in the service of religion.
The need to penetrate deeper into the mystery of life and nature, to discover solutions to the practical as well as the spiritual problems that surround humans was sometimes developed with the aid of the power of images that provide a comforting world view. Byzantine art is one such example of art in the service of theology and the salvation of humankind which was perceived to be surrounded by sin and destruction.
Although dominated by theology, Byzantine art is a complex phenomenon that incorporated along with the search for an absolute meaning and truth in life, a spiritual component and an educational, almost propagandistic aspect. The world of the Byzantines provides an interesting artistic phenomenon endowed with spiritual and symbolic revelations.
The unifying element of this art form, which spanned from the 4th to the mid 15th centuries the fall of Constantinople ended the Byzantine empire in , Vikan, p. After the fall of Constantinople, the basic canons of Byzantine art have remained viable, even to the present day, in the Orthodox Church continuing the abstract and symbolic imagery meant to evoke spiritual elevation and divine contemplation in the viewer.
In Byzantine art one can discover the wealthiest and most complex fusion of functions, elements and reasons. The synthesis of theology, religion and aesthetics provides a window to a multifaceted world view that has endured remaining relevant for centuries, still being promoted today within the Orthodox Church.
Borne of the Early Christian art of the 3rd and 4th centuries Rodley, p. Amidst the vastness of the Roman empire, multiform influences prevailed of which the most significant was Hellenistic Stuart, p. The pagan deities were given visual form in images and idols that evoked their presence and assured their cooperation.
Although it is difficult to reconstruct the emotive and psychological values that the idols and temples of antiquity elicited from the viewer, nevertheless, the power of those images to inform and instruct has been amply discussed from Plato onward.
The Greek ideal of beauty in conjunction with truth and the good dominated ancient art and demanded thoughtfulness and contemplation from the viewer. Rome added the element of propaganda to the imperial images from the reign of Augustus on, along with the influence of the Greek aesthetic. It is important to remember that the Graeco-Roman religion was concrete, in the sense that the gods were portrayed with distinct characteristics and personalities. Their exploits were duly sung by the epic poets and dramatists who, in the process, humanized the idea of the remote and immortal deities.
Thus people of the pagan past could clearly visualize their gods who appear almost human not only in their physique but also in their behavior. By way of contrast, the Judeo-Christian religion was more esoteric and abstract, especially since Judaism forbade imagery of the Almighty.
God could only be represented symbolically through the burning bush or such imagery. In Rome, however, many temples and statues of the various gods were on continuous display along with images of the deified emperor, especially Julius Caesar Zanker, p. The power of those imperial portraits to evoke supplication and alliance to the emperor, as well as to educate the masses to the world view of the imperial ambition, is well known.
Part of the reason for the cruel persecutions of the Christians was their refusal to light the incense and bow before the image of the ruler. This was seen as an act of defiance and rebelliousness, rather than the idolatrous admittance of the emperor as God. In a world heavily dependent on the visual image as a means of giving form to abstract ideas, the Christian religion could not compete without providing imagery for its more complex and difficult conception of God.
Antiquity already had developed a number of mystery religions that were shrouded in secrecy and only allowed the initiated to participate. Though information about their rituals is scarce, due to the sworn secrecy of the participants, nonetheless, one can surmise from later Christian condemnations, like Tertullian, Clement and Origen, Hinson, p.
This experience provided participants with an ecstatic transformation through which they could identify with the deity. Some similarities are to be found with the Christians in their emulation of Christ, especially through the rituals of the sacred supper and baptism. Early Christian imagery grows out of the available visual vocabulary, and thus in the frescoes of the catacombs one finds a mixture of symbolism and some poses from Graeco-Roman art.
For example, images like the Good Shepherd or the philosopher became transformed into symbols for Christ Rodley, p. After Constantine's edict of toleration and even positive endorsement of Christianity, one begins to find the gradual creation of a specific Christian and later Byzantine iconography. The ecumenical council of Nicaea in AD Rodley, p. The abstract concept of the Trinity and the Holy Spirit became symbolized through the Holy Dove, Christ and the hand of God, or three angels.
In St. In the Byzantine empire, the Church was closely associated with the emperor who also became the head of the Church, thus strengthening his position and empire. Learn More About Byzantine. Time Traveler for Byzantine The first known use of Byzantine was in See more words from the same year. Listen to Our Podcast About Byzantine. Get Word of the Day delivered to your inbox! Sign Up. Statistics for Byzantine Look-up Popularity. Style: MLA.
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